Space programs around the world

A defining feature of the modern space age is how more countries and the commercial space sector (aka NewSpace) are participating as never before. In addition to the two traditional superpowers (NASA and Roscosmos), China, India and Europe have made very impressive gains in recent years.

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Beyond them, small space agencies also make an important contribution to the exploration of the human space. And in the coming decades, others should enter the fray. Here is an overview of the five largest federal space agencies in the world today.

Chinese National Space Agency:

The Chinese National Space Agency (CNSA) is arguably the fastest growing space agency in the world. In parallel with the Chinese "economic miracle", the Chinese space program has developed considerably over the last two decades and has set up more and more ambitious and ambitious missions.

In the coming decades, China hopes to deploy a modular space station, perform crew missions on the moon, Mars robotic missions and collaborate on extremely ambitious projects that will place them alongside NASA and Roscosmos.

Historical overview:

Like Russia and the United States, China's space program is rooted in the development of nuclear weapons during the Cold War. This began in 1955, partly in response to the American threat of using nuclear weapons during the Korean War (1950-1953).

In 1957, with the launch of Spoutnik-1 Mao said China must develop all the technologies needed to send its own satellite in space. Code name Project 581, the goal was to launch a satellite in 1959 to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the communist revolution of 1949.

In 1958, the Chinese had built their own version of the Soviet R-2 rocket, which was provided as part of the technology transfer program that existed in the 1950s. In 1960, the Chinese developed and successfully launched the T-7 rocket rings, their first Chinese launcher developed by the natives.

The 1960 Sino-Soviet split put an end to this cooperation and China began to develop independently the development of nuclear missiles and space launchers. In the mid-1960s, the Chinese managed to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and nuclear warheads.

A crewed space program became a priority in 1967 in response to the Soviet and American lunar programs. Although these efforts have not paid off, China has managed to develop its first heavy launchers – the two-stage model. Feng Bao-1 and the three steps Chang Zhen-1 (Long March-1). The latter has managed to launch China's first communications satellite (Dong Fang Hong-I) in 1970.

With the death of Mao, slow progress and several projects have been canceled. However, in the 1980s, several key developments took place. This included new developments in the Long March rocket family and the creation of a commercial launch program in 1985 (which allowed them to launch foreign satellites).

In 1986, China again set ambitious long-term goals, such as the development of crewed spacecraft and a space station. In 1993, China's space program was reformed with the creation of the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC).

The CNSA was now responsible for the planning and development of space activities related to China's national space program, while CASIC was responsible for the development of space-related technologies as well as those related to infrastructure. Several important steps followed.

For example, in 1999, the CNSA launched the program for the first time Shenzhou spaceship, a modified version of Russian Soyuz spacecraft that was created to support China's crewed space program. In 2003, the first mission in Crewed Earth Orbit was successfully launched.

In the same year, the CNSA launched its Chinese lunar exploration program (the Change program, named after the goddess of the Chinese moon), who planned to send a series of robotic missions to the moon for a possible crew mission. This program was parallel to the development of new rockets such as the Long March 3B.

Between 1997 and 2008, ten launches were successfully completed. 3B. This included the launch of the first lunar orbiter program (Chang & e 1) in 2007, which has made China the fifth country to successfully orbit the moon and to map the surface.

This was followed by the launch of the Chang & # 39; e 2 in 2010, which mapped the Moon in more detail. He then left the lunar orbit and headed to the L2 L-Earth-Sun Lagrangian point to test China's telemetry, tracking and command (TT & C) network. This concluded Phase I from the program Chang & # 39; e.

This phase was followed by Phase II, which began with the Chang & # 39; e 3 landmark in 2013. This mission deployed the Yutu (Jade Rabbit) on the lunar surface, which explored the lunar surface and conducted ultraviolet astronomy experiments and terrestrial plasmasphere studies.

The last mission, the Chang & # 39; e 4 lander, reached the far side of the moon in 2018. The Yutu 2 A mobile vehicle was then deployed to explore the South Pole-Aitken Basin. This impact basin, located in the southern polar region, contains abundant water ice reserves and is considered the ideal location for a lunar outpost.

The LG also performs an experiment known as the Micro Lunar Ecosystem (LME), a metal cylinder containing seeds and insect eggs designed to test the effects of lunar gravity on living beings. The orbiter component of the mission also tested the ability to relay communications from the other side of the moon.

The third phase will involve a robotic undercarriage (Chang & # 39; e 5) who will lead a lunar mission back samples. The fourth phase, which is scheduled to take place from 2023 to 2027, will involve further research in the South Pole Aitken Basin and the construction of a research outpost.

For this phase, China will send three landing gear, orbiter and rover missions to investigate the topography and resources of the basin and to obtain samples for analysis. This phase will also include a 3D printing experience that will use the lunar regolith to build a structure and another sealed ecosystem experience.

In 2016, China launched its first launch Long March 5 rocket, a two-stage heavy launcher that will play a vital role in China's future space projects. China has also made significant progress in the development of space stations in recent years.

In 2011, the Tiangong-1 The station was launched under the program of the same name – which means "heavenly palace" in Chinese. This prototype was designed to test the technology and components needed to build a large space station. After spending six and a half years in orbit and being visited by a series of crews, Tiangong-1 desorbed in 2018.

Two years ago, Tiangong-2 was launched in orbit. Building on the successes of the first, this station was designed to test systems and processes for medium-term stays and refueling. The lessons learned from these two stations will be used to create a large modular space station whose assembly is expected to begin in 2022.

Important achievements:

Thanks to its numerous achievements, China has emerged as the third space power. And in the future, he has many bold projects that could put him on par with the United States and Russia. Foremost among these are planned lunar missions with crew and the creation of a long-term space station in orbit.

This station will be the third modular space station in Earth orbit, after Mir and the International Space Station. It will consist of three modules – the Cabin Basic Module (CCM), Laboratory Booth Module I (LCM-1) and Laboratory Booth Module II (LCM-2) – and will be provided by the Shenzhou and the Tianzhou spatialship.

Beginning in 2019, China began reviewing preliminary studies of a crewed lunar landing mission (planned for the 2030s) and cooperating with international partners to build an outpost near the lunar south pole (the proposed international Moon village).

First spatial explorations:

As China entered the race for space behind the United States and Russia, it achieved impressive firsts in its day. Over the last forty years they have been the first space agency to:

• Launch the heavier satellite to date (Dong Fang Hong-I, 1970)
• Send a spaceship to the Lagrangian L2 point directly from the lunar orbit (Chang & # 39; e 2, 2011)
• Send a spaceship directly to an asteroid from a Lagrangian Sun-Earth point (Change December 2, 2012)
• Explore the moon and an asteroid (Chang & # 39; e 2, 2012)
• Make a soft landing on the other side of the Moon (Chang & # 39; e 4, 2019)

European Space Agency:

In 1975, members from ten European countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom) met to officially announce the creation of 39, a space agency combining the programs and infrastructures of their respective nations.

According to the Articles of the Convention, the purpose of this agency was:

"[P]to promote and promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, the cooperation of European States in the field of space research and technology and their applications, with a view to their use for scientific purposes and for operational space applications systems. "

While ESA is a newcomer in space exploration, its history goes back to post-World War II Europe, at a time when the United States and its allies of NATO were engaged in a competition for supremacy in space. But with the end of the cold war and the formation of the EU, Europe has become a major power in the space.

Historical overview:

After the Second World War, Western Europe experienced an exodus from some of its greatest scientific minds, particularly those involved in rocket and aerospace research. In the 1950s, the post-war boom led to a revival of investment in the sciences, but it was clear that a cooperation agreement was needed to remain competitive in the space.

In 1958, after the launch of Spoutnik-1, Scientists from Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, West Germany, the Netherlands and Australia (within the framework of the British Commonwealth) are are meeting to discuss the creation of a joint space agency for Western Europe.

This led to the creation of ELDO (European Launch Development Organization) and ESRO (European Space Research Organization) in 1962 and 1964 respectively. These organizations were charged with launching an artificial satellite on behalf of the countries of Western Europe.

Between 1968 and 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. However, limited funding has complicated the creation of a European launcher (the Europa family of rockets), which led to the merger of ESRO and ELDO in 1975 to form the European Space Agency.

Ten Member States signed the ESA Convention – Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom – which was subsequently ratified by the EU. 1960. The first major scientific mission of ESA was also launched in 1975, the Cos-B space probe for monitoring gamma rays.

In 1978, ESA collaborated with NASA to create the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), the world's first high-orbit telescope. Since 1979, ESA has succeeded in developing several strategies Ariane launch vehicles, leading to the multi-stage Ariane 4 (1988-2003) and heavy launch Ariane 5 (1996-present) which gave Europe an independent launch capability.

In 1986, ESA launched its first mission in deep space (Giotto) who met and studied the comet Halley and Grigg – Skjellerup. In 1989-1990, several missions followed, notably the cartography by stars Hipparcos mission, the Solar and heliospheric observatory (SOHO), the solar orbiter Ulysses and the The Hubble Space Telescope.

Subsequent scientific missions conducted in cooperation with NASA included the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft, which studied the Saturn system from 2004 to 2017. The ESA contribution was the Huygens lander, who landed on the surface of Titan and returned images to the Earth in 2005.

In 2003, ESA launched two main missions: the SMART-1 probe and the Mars Express orbiter / lander. The first performed a lunar flight to test advanced ionic propulsion technology, while the second was the agency's first interplanetary mission. This was followed by the Venus Express probe in 2005, which studied the atmosphere of Venus and looked for signs of possible life.

In 2006, ESA's first exoplanet hunting mission – the Convection, rotation and planetary transits (CoRoT) space observatory – was launched. This was followed by the launch of the Gaia Space Observatory in 2013, which measures the positions, distances and movements of a billion stars and astronomical objects in order to create the largest 3D catalog of the Milky Way to date.

In 2016, at the annual Council of Ministers, ESA announced its intention to build an International Moon Village, a lunar outpost that would act as the spiritual successor of the ISS and establish a presence. lunar pattern on the moon.

This objective was detailed at the international symposium "Moon 2020-2030" of the same year. As for the ISS, international cooperation is intrinsic to the creation of this foundation, as are the technologies that will enable in situ resource utilization (ISRU) and additive manufacturing (3D printing).

Today, ESA is composed of 21 Member States and Associate Members (including Canada). It also maintains a cooperation agreement with five other countries (Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia) and four others as signatories (Croatia, Israel, Turkey, Ukraine).

ESA is a major contributor to the International Space Station (ISS) and actively collaborates with NASA, Roscosmos, ISRO, CNSA, JAXA and other space agencies on a number of long-term projects.

ESA and its predecessors have presided over 50 years of cooperation, not only between its member states, but also with other federal space agencies. This model will be very useful to go forward, where international cooperation will be needed to achieve several common goals (for example, lunar exploration, a lunar base, Mars exploration, etc.). ).

Important achievements:

Since its relatively modest beginnings, ESA has evolved to become a major competitor in the space. Thanks to the cooperative efforts of its Member States and the private sector, it has managed to build an independent launching capacity for Europe in the 1980s.

Since then, ESA has sent many satellites into space, from robotic probes to other planets and bodies, and has contributed to conducting lucrative research aboard the ISS. As far as the future is concerned, ESA is about to make some very important contributions that will push back the frontiers of astronomy, scientific research, and exploration. of the human space and international cooperation.

These include robotic exploration of the moon using robotic rovers, in anticipation of crewed missions; continuing their exploration of Mars (using the ExoMars rover), and the construction of a lunar footbridge in orbit of the Moon and the International Moon Village on its surface.

First spatial explorations:

Although ESA has not established many firsts since its inception, the ones it has achieved are quite impressive. ESA is the first space agency to:

• Send a robotic spaceship into orbit around a comet (Rosetta, 2014)
• Make a soft landing on the surface of a comet (Philae Lander, 2014)

Indian Space Research Organization:

Like China, India's space program has expanded rapidly in recent decades, largely due to the country's growing economic power and influence. However, along with their international peers, the history of India's incursion into space can be traced much further.

And in the coming years, India plans to become the fourth power to send astronauts into space, to explore other celestial bodies with orbits, rovers and landers, and eventually to send humans do the same.

Preview of the story:

Modern space research in India dates back to the 1920s with experiments on radio waves, scattering of light and the ionosphere of the Earth. However, it was only after 1945, the year of India's independence, that coordinated space research began in India.

This was led by Vikram Sarabhai and Homi Bhabha, who created the Physical Research Laboratory and the Tata Institute of Basic Research in 1945, respectively. With the creation of the Department of Atomic Energy (1950), research was conducted throughout the 1950s on the Earth's magnetic field, cosmic radiation, and meteorology.

In 1962, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ordered the creation of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), headed by Mr. Vikram Sarabhai – the "founding father of the Indian space program". INCOSPAR created the launch pad for Thumba equatorial rockets in southern India, where the first Indian sounding rocket (Argo B-13) was launched in 1963.

In 1969, INCOSPAR became the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and began to embark on a space program. In 1975 he built the first satellite of India (Aryabhata) which was launched by the Soviet Union. In 1980, India launched its first satellite (Rohini) using an Indian-made rocket (SLV-3).

In the 1990s, ISRO unveiled the Polar satellite launcher (PSLV) for launching satellites in polar orbits and the Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle (GSLV) to place satellites in geostationary orbits. These rockets launched numerous satellites of communication and Earth observation during the following decades.

In October 2008, ISRO sent its first mission to the Moon (Chandrayaan-1) and his first mission on Mars – Mangalyaan, alias. Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) – in November 2013. This probe went into orbit on Mars on September 24, 2014, making India the first country to do it on the first try.

In June 2016, ISRO set a personal record for the largest number of satellites (20) launched with a single payload. In February 2017, they set a world record by launching 104 satellites in a single payload. In June 2017, India launched its heaviest rocket, the Geosynchronous satellite launcher – Mark III (GSLV-Mk III).

Important achievements:

The fact that India launched its national space program the very year of its independence is a very impressive feat. And while progress was initially gradual, ISRO has managed to build itself to the point of becoming a global competitor of space exploration.

Since the beginning of the century, India's economic growth has fueled the growth of its space sector. Concurrently, ISRO has made tremendous progress and reached the point where it could compete with China in space, not to mention Russia and the United States.

Over the past two decades, India has become the fourth largest space agency in the world to send a mission to the Moon and Mars, as well as the first space agency in Asia to reach the orbit of Mars. In the coming years, they hope to become the fourth space agency to send astronauts into orbit, which is planned for 2022.

First spatial explorations:

Like ESA, India has not yet created many firsts in space, but they have accomplished a lot in a short time and should in fact do a lot more in the years to come. Until now, ISRO is the first to:

• Asian space program to send a mission to Mars (Mangalyaan, 2014)
• Reach an orbit around Mars the first time (Mangalyaan, 2014)
• Set the record for the largest number of satellites (104) launched in a single payload (PSLV-C37, 2017)

National Administration of Space and Aeronautics:

The exploits of NASA are well documented. Whether sending astronauts into orbit in the late 1950s or 1960s, sending the first human beings to the moon or exploring the inner and outer solar system, no space agency has followed the historical legacy of NASA.

But with the ground gain of other space agencies, one wonders if NASA will maintain its leadership in space longer. To do this, NASA plans to renew its crewed missions on the Moon and the first crewed missions on Mars.

Preview of the story:

US incursions into space began in earnest in the 1940s, with research on rocket science and the upper atmosphere. These efforts were overseen by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) and were designed so that America would not be overtaken by the Soviet Union after the Second World War.

Between the late 1940s and the late 1950s, this research consisted of high-altitude flights with supersonic Bell X-1 which was piloted by Air Force test pilot Chuck Yeager. These experiments became the responsibility of NACA after the X-1 reached speeds above Mach 1 in previous tests.

It was also at this time that American and Soviet planners began to consider launching artificial satellites. On May 27, 1955, President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the project of launching an artificial scientific satellite in space as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY), July 1, 1957 as of December 31, 1958.

The purpose of this collaborative effort was to gather scientific data on the Earth that would benefit all humanity, in accordance with the principle of "freedom of space". The Soviets quickly followed suit by announcing their own plans to put into orbit a satellite as part of their Sputnik program (which means in Russian "traveling companion").

In response to the launch of Spoutnik-1Eisenhower signed the Law on Aeronautics and Space on July 28, 1958 – which provided for the creation of NASA and the dissolution of NACA. According to this law, NASA has been charged "

In addition to research, projects and NACA staff, its scientific institutions would also be absorbed by NASA. These included the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory and the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory.

Other organizations have also been incorporated into the new agency, such as the Space Science Group of the Naval Research Laboratory in Maryland, the Caltech-powered Reaction Propulsion Laboratory, and the Ballistic Missile Agency of Caltech. the army, where the German rocket specialist Wernher von Braun and his team of engineers were engaged in the development of large rockets.

A few months after its creation, NASA started to carry out several important programs. Already, the first American satellite (Explorer 1) were launched into space and documented the existence of radiation zones encircling the Earth (the Van Allen belts).

NASA also continued its experiments with rocket planes, which resulted in the X-15 hypersonic aircraft. Between 1959 and 1968, the aircraft set speed and altitude records, flying to the end of space, which is consistent with an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above sea level – aka. the Kármán line.

In addition to launching satellites, NASA has also started several programs to send astronauts into space. The first of these projects, called Project Mercury (1958-1963), focused on the use of one-stage rockets and newly created space capsules, which would send a single astronaut into orbit.

The first seven astronauts, nicknamed the "Mercury Seven", were selected from the Navy, Air Force and Navy test pilot programs. Beginning with Alan Shepard and the Freedom 7 mission, six crewed flights were made between 1961 and 1963 at sub-orbital and orbital altitudes, which resulted in the orbit flight of astronaut Gordon Cooper (22) (Faith 7).

The Gemini project (1961-1966) then followed the development of two-stage rockets and spacecraft capable of sending two astronauts into space. These astronauts would then conduct operations such as rendezvous and berthing with other spacecraft and extravehicular activity (EVA) that would help pave the way for any crewed missions on the Moon.

NASA has also begun developing robotic missions to study celestial bodies beyond the Earth. These included the Moon Ranger, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter programs, which would collect data on the surface of the moon. Ces études ont fourni des informations précieuses qui ont permis à la NASA de sélectionner des sites d'atterrissage pour ses missions lunaires avec équipage.

Celles-ci ont été menées dans le cadre du Programme Apollo, qui a débuté en 1960 et s’est poursuivi jusqu’à la dernière mission Apollo (Apollo 17) a été envoyé sur la Lune en 1972. Les missions comprenaient l’utilisation du système à trois étages. Saturne V fusée en tant que lanceur et vaisseau spatial composée d’un module de commandement et de service (CSM) et d’un module d’atterrissage lunaire (LM).

Le projet a débuté par une terrible tragédie survenue le 27 janvier 1967, lorsque le Apollo 1 Un vaisseau spatial a subi un incendie électrique lors d’un essai. La capsule a été détruite et les trois membres d'équipage (Virgil I. «Gus» Grissom, Edward H. White II et Roger B. Chaffee) sont tous morts.

Les prochaines missions (Apollo 7) lancée le 11 octobre 1968 et serait la première mission en équipage du programme spatial Apollo. La mission consistait en une simulation de rendez-vous et d'amarrage par le satellite qui devait extraire le module lunaire (LM) pour les futurs atterrissages sur la lune.

La deuxième mission avec équipage, Apollo 8, a été le premier à envoyer des astronautes autour de la Lune en décembre 1968. Les deux missions suivantes consistaient à effectuer les manœuvres d'accostage nécessaires à l'atterrissage de la Lune. Et finalement, le Moon Landing a été fait avec le Apollo 11 mission le 20 juillet 1969 et les astronautes Neil Armstrong et Buzz Aldrin sont devenus les premiers hommes à marcher sur la Lune.

C’était le point culminant du programme spatial américain, qui établissait le leadership de l’Amérique dans l’espace et signalait que l’Amérique avait effectivement remporté la "course à l’espace". Cinq suivants Apollon des missions ont également débarqué des astronautes sur la Lune, la dernière en décembre 1972, avant la fin du programme.

De ces six Apollon En vol spatial, douze astronautes au total marcheraient sur la Lune, mèneraient des activités scientifiques lunaires et apporteraient même des échantillons de roches de la Lune pour les étudier. Avec la conclusion du programme Apollo, la NASA a commencé à se concentrer sur des objectifs à long terme et durables.

En plus d'envoyer des astronautes dans l'espace et sur la Lune, la NASA s'est également consacrée à l'exploration des planètes du système solaire à l'aide de vaisseaux spatiaux robotisés. Le premier exemple est le programme Pioneer, qui a débuté en 1958 et est resté en vigueur pendant 20 ans.

Alors que les premières missions visaient à prouver que la vitesse de sortie était possible et que la Lune pouvait être étudiée en orbite, les orbiteurs ultérieurs étaient consacrés à l'étude de la météorologie spatiale, de Vénus et des planètes du système solaire extérieur.

Cela a été suivi par le programme Mariner (1962-1973) qui a lancé dix engins spatiaux robotisés interplanétaires pour explorer Mercure, Vénus et Mars. the Viking 1 and 2 Les missions suivirent en 1975/76, composées d'un orbite et d'un atterrisseur qui étudiaient la surface et l'atmosphère martiennes à la recherche de signes de vie.

Cependant, le plus célèbre était sans doute le programme Voyager, qui a lancé deux sondes (Voyager 1 and 2) en 1977 pour explorer le système solaire externe. Après avoir effectué des survols de Jupiter, Saturne, Uranus et Neptune, les deux sondes sont entrées dans le milieu interstellaire en 2012 et 2018, respectivement.

Après Apollo (1973 et après), les priorités de la NASA se sont orientées vers le développement de technologies permettant une présence humaine à long terme dans l'espace et une réduction des coûts liés aux lancements individuels. Dans le premier cas, ces efforts ont abouti à la création du premier atelier et observatoire orbital américain. Skylab.

Dans le cas de ces derniers, ces efforts ont abouti à la création du Navette spatiale, un vaisseau spatial réutilisable capable de voyager de et vers l’orbite terrestre. La première navette, Business, a été dévoilé en 1976 et a servi de banc d’essai pour la technologie, bien qu’elle n’ait jamais volé en orbite.

Au total, cinq navettes entièrement orbitales ont été construites entre 1976 et 1991, dont la navette spatiale Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Effort. Au cours de leurs trois décennies de service (1981-2011), ces navettes ont effectué d'innombrables missions, chargées de déployer des charges utiles en orbite et aidant à la construction de l'ISS.

Avant d'être mis à la retraite en 2011, deux navettes seraient perdues – Challenger en 1986 et Columbia En 2003, la NASA a commencé à se fixer de nouveaux objectifs à long terme, axés en priorité sur le développement d'une nouvelle classe de lanceurs lourds et d'engins spatiaux pouvant à nouveau envoyer des équipages et des charges utiles au-delà de la LEO.

Les programmes spatiaux robotiques de la NASA ont également permis d’accomplir d’importants progrès au lendemain de l’Apollo, comme le déploiement de plusieurs atterrisseurs et rovers sur la surface martienne, le MESSAGER étude de la sonde de Mercure, la Cassini l'étude de la sonde Saturne et son système de lunes, et la Nouveaux horizons probe's flyby of Pluto and the Kuiper Belt Object Ultima Thule.

In terms of space telescopes and observatories, NASA broke new ground in recent decades with the deployment of Hubble (1990), the Chandra X-ray Observatory (1999), the Kepler, Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), and Spitzer (2009), and the Transitting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) in 2018.

Important Achievements:

NASA list of achievements is long and varied and can't possibly be summed up in one article. However, some achievements stand out from the rest and can be summarized succinctly. For starters, NASA is responsible for some of the most important developments in the field of rocketry after World War II.

During the late 50s, they helped pioneer the first launch vehicles, which were initially adaptations of ballistic missiles. These included the Jupiter-C research and development vehicle, as well as the Mercury-Redstone, Titan and Atlas class of launch vehicles.

However, it was the development of the Saturn rocket family that was the crowning achievement of NASA's rocketry program. Development of this class of rocket began in 1957 and led to the creation of the Saturn I and IB in 1961 and 1966, respectively.

By 1967, the two and three-stage Saturn V rocket was debuted. In addition to sending the Apollo astronauts to the Moon, it remains the most powerful launch vehicle in the history of spaceflight. NASA also has the honor of launching more satellites than any national space program.

According to the UNOOSA's Index of Objects Launched into Outer Space, there are over 4,987 artificial satellites in orbit of Earth as of 2019. Of the approximately 1900 that are still operational, 859 were launched by the US.

Another major accomplishment is the number of astronauts NASA has sent to space. As of November 17th, 2016, a total of 567 people from 36 countries have traveled to space, of which 351 were American. Of these, only 24 people have traveled beyond LEO to the Moon, all of which were American.

NASA has also conducted 161 crewed flights, 148 of which were to orbit or beyond, whereas the second-place holder (Russia) has conducted 145 – 144 of which were to orbit and beyond. NASA has also launched the most flights (872 to date), which is over three times what Russia has conducted (259 to date).

Last, but certainly not least, NASA is the only nation that has sent astronauts to another celestial object (the Moon) and stands alone as the only space agency that has sent robotic missions to every planet in the Solar System.

Space Exploration Firsts:

The list of NASA's firsts is also long and varied. Listed chronologically, NASA was the first to:

• Send living organisms into space (1947)
• Launch a satellite that provided observations of Earth’s and interplanetary magnetic field (Pioneer 1, 1958)
  
• Launch a communications satellite (SCORE, 1958)
• Launch the world's first weather satellite (Tiros I, 1960)
• Investigate solar winds, interplanetary magnetic fields, and energetic particles in space (Explorer 12, 1961)
• Make a suborbital flight, pilot a spacecraft, land in a spacecraft, and land in water (Alan Shephard, Freedom 7, 1961)
• Successfully conduct a planetary encounter (Venus) with a space probe (Mariner 2, 1962)
• Impact a probe on the far side of the Moon (Mariner 2, 1962)
• Make a suborbital flight with a winged spacecraft (Joe Walker, X-15 flight 90, 1963)
• Conduct orbital maneuvers with a crewed spacecraft (Gemini 3, 1965)
• Conduct a rendezvous in space (Gemini 6A and Gemini 7, 1965)

• Conduct a docking maneuver in space (Gemini 8, 1965)
• Send astronauts beyond Low Earth Orbit (Apollo 8, 1968)
• Send astronauts to the Moon (Apollo 11, 1969)
• Retrieve samples from the Moon (Apollo 11, 1969)
• Use a wheeled vehicle on a celestial body other than Earth (Apollo 15, 1971)
• Orbit another planet (Mars) with a robotic spacecraft (Mariner 9, 1971)
• Send a nuclear-powered spacecraft through the Asteroid Belt to study Jupiter (Mariner 10, 1972)
• Send a spacecraft to Saturn (Pioneer 11, 1973)
• Send a robotic spacecraft of Mercury (Mariner 10, 1973)
• Launch the largest habitable structure to orbit to date (Skylab, 1973)
• Send a robotic spacecraft closer to the Sun than any previous mission (Helios 1, 1974)
• Conduct a soft landing on Mars with a robotic mission (Viking 1, 1976)
• Conduct a flyby of Jupiter and its moons, Saturn and its ring system, (Voyager 1, 1977)
• Conduct a flyby of Uranus, Neptune and Neptune’s moons (Viking 2, 1977)
• Conduct an orbital flight with a winged spacecraft (STS-1, 1981)
• Conduct an untethered spacewalk (STS-41B, 1984)
• Orbit Jupiter with a robotic spacecraft (Galileo, 1995)
• Send an automated rover to Mars (Sojourner, 1997)
• Orbit Saturn with a robotic spacecraft (Cassini, 2004)
• Conduct a sample-return mission from a comet (Stardust, 2006)
• Send a spacecraft beyond the heliopause and into the interstellar medium (Voyager 1, 2012)
• Orbit a dwarf planet with a robotic spacecraft (Dawn, 2015)
• Conduct a flyby of Pluto and a Kuiper Belt Object (New Horizons, 2015, 2019)
• Conduct the closest approach to the Sun (Parker Solar Probe, 2018)

Soviet Space Program/Roscomos:

From the period immediately after the Second World War to 1991, the Soviet Space Program was NASA's chief rival in space. After taking an early lead in the "Space Race" and achieving many firsts, Russia eventually ceded leadership to NASA due to changing budget environments and political problems.

With the fall of communism, Russia's space program experienced a period of a downturn as a result of economic issues. But after fifteen years, the Russian space program experienced a renaissance under the leadership of the State Corporation for Space Activities (Roscosmos).

Today, the spirit of competition continues to exist between Roscosmos and NASA, but is largely defined by cooperation through programs like the International Space Station. And with a new era of renewed space exploration upon us, Roscosmos is poised to play a major role in a number of lucrative international ventures.

Overview of History:

Russia's space program began in earnest after World War II, at a time when the Soviet and American governments were relying on German rocket scientists and technologies developed during the war to get to space first. However, the roots of the Soviet space program go deeper, extending to the pre-war Soviet period and even the late Russian Empire.

During the 19th century, Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1933),  often referred to as the "Russian father of rocketry", wrote several pioneering papers on the theory of space exploration. Arguably his most important paper, titled "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Reaction Devices" was published in 1903.

In this paper, he calculated the minimum horizontal speed to maintain orbit (aka. "the Tsiolkovsky equation" or "the rocket equation") but also introduced the design on which all modern rockets are based. In 1929, he introduced the concept of the multistaged rocket as a means of exploring beyond Earth, which he dreamed would one-day include the exploration of Mars.

Another major figure was Russian aircraft designer Sergei Korolev (1907-1966), who was inspired by Tsiolkovsky and also dreamed of a crewed mission to Mars. In 1931, Korolev and German-Russian engineer Freidrich Zander helped found the Group for the Study of Reactive Motion (GIRD), which began conducting research into practical rocketry applications and conducted launches of liquid-fueled rockets.

Between 1938 and 1946, Korolev was imprisoned as part of Stalin's "Great Purge". After his release, he became a leading figure in the OKB-1 design bureau, which oversaw the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles and rockets. Much of their work was based on German rocket designs, which had been seized towards the end of the Second World War.

With the assistance of German rocket scientist Helmut Gröttrup, the Korolev and OKB-1 began building their own versions of the V-2 rocket, which resulted in the R-1 in 1951 and the R-7 Semyorka by 1957. That same year, the Soviets achieved two milestones with the launch of the first artificial satellite (Sputnik-1) and the first animal (Laika the dog) to space (Sputnik 2).

The success of the Sputnik program led the Soviet government to demand that plans for a crewed mission be accelerated. This resulted in the Vostok program, which succeeded in sending the first man (Yuri Gagarin) to space on April 12th, 1961 (Vostok-1) and the first woman (Valentina Tereshkova) on June 16th, 1963.

After Vostok, the Soviets began to refocus their efforts towards larger spacecraft, long-duration spaceflights and extra-vehicular activity (EVA). This resulted in the Voskhod program, which involved a redesigned Vostok spacecraft (capable of carrying 2 to three astronauts) and the more powerful Molinya rocket.

However, this program mounted only two crewed flights before being canceled. The Soviet Soyuz program, which aimed to develop spacecraft and launch vehicles for a crewed mission to the Moon, did not fare much better. Initiated in 1963, it led to the development of the three-stage N1 rocket and the Soyuz spacecraft.

Unfortunately, the development of the N1 was complicated by the death or Korolev in 1966, as well as underfunding and a rush to develop the rocket to compete with NASA's Saturn V rocket. Coupled with the success of the Apollo program, the Soviet abandoned their plans for a crew lunar mission in 1974 and once again shifted their priorities.

The Soviet space program was also instrumental in the exploration of other planetary bodies using robotic spacecraft. Between 1961 and 1999, the Soviets and Russian Academy of Sciences (after 1978) sent multiple probes to Venus as part of their Venera and Vega programs.

The most notable among these were arguably the Venera 4 and Venera 7 missions. While the former provided the first on-site analysis of another planet, the latter conducted the first soft landing on another planet and transmission of info back to Earth.

Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet space program also sent robotic probes to explore Mars. The most notable of these was the Mars 3 orbiter and lander, which was the first mission to achieve a soft landing on Mars in 1971. Several missions were sent to conduct sample return missions to Mars' largest satellite Phobos (none of which were successful).

However, it was the Soviet/Russian efforts to explore the Moon with robotic missions (as part of their Luna, Zond and Lunakohd programs) that really stands out from the rest. Between 1958 and 1976, these programs sent several orbiters, landers and even rovers to the Moon.

The most notable were Luna 3, 9 and 16, which were the first missions to photograph the far side of the Moon, make a soft landing on the Moon, and conduct the first robotic sample-return mission from the Moon, and Lunokhod 1, which was the first rover to land on the Moon or any other celestial body.

For the early 1970s onward, the Soviet space program focused its efforts on developing expertise in long-duration space flight and in the deployment of space stations. The first space station (Salyut 1) was deployed in 1971, which led to the first rendezvous and docking between a spacecraft and space station later that same year (Soyuz 10).

Tehnical failures caused the next three attempts to fail or result in the station’s orbits decaying after a short period. By 1974, the Soviets managed to successfully deploy Salyut 4, followed by three more stations that would remain in orbit for periods of between one and nine years – some of which were covers for the deployment of Almaz military reconnaissance stations.

In 1986, the Soviets took the lead in the creation of space stations with the deployment of Mir. Originally intended to be an improved model of the Salyut space stations, the design evolved to incorporate several modules and ports for Soyuz spacecraft and Progress cargo spaceships.

Between 1987 and 1996, all the additional modules that would go into the station were launched and integrated. Over the next 15 years before the station was deorbited (on March 23rd, 2001), Mir would be visited by a total of 28 long-duration crews, some of which were from other Eastern Bloc nations, the European Space Agency (ESA), and NASA.

Russian attempts to build a reusable spacecraft also yielded the Buran ("Snowstorm") space shuttle and Energia heavy launch rocket. Unfortunately, the program ran out of funds after a single flight in 1988, and the program was canceled after 1991.

With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet space program was officially disbanded and reformed as Roscosmos. During the 1990s, the Russian financial crisis saw the organization turn towards private ventures to keep its space programs running – which included space tourism and commercial satellite launches.

From 2005 onward, as Russia's economy began to experience considerable growth, Roscosmos saw an increase in funding for its programs. This led to an ensured Russia's commitment to the ISS, as well as renewed interest in the deployment of research satellites and crewed missions to space.

This new budget environment allowed Roscosmos to finally the Angara rocket after 22 years of development. This rocket family was conceived in the post-Soviet period to replace older rockets and those that were built in former Soviet Bloc countries that had since become independent. The first test launches took place in July and December of 2014, with the first launched into suborbital and the second achieving a geosynchronous orbit.

Beginning in 1993, Roscosmos, NASA, the ESA, JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) began collaborating to create the International Space Station (ISS). This project brought together the Russian plans for the Mir-2 station with NASA’s Space Station Freedom project. Between 1998 and 2011, several modules would be assembled in orbit, eventually leading to its overall architecture.

With the retiring of the Space Shuttle in 2011, Roscosmos became the sole means through which NASA was able to send astronauts to the ISS. Despite the downturn in US-Russia relations after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014, cooperation between NASA and Roscosmos continues.

In 2013, the Russian space sector was consolidated and renationalized due to issues of reliability. However, this was undone in 2015 by presidential decree and Roscosmos was switched from being a federal space agency to a "state corporation".

Important Achievements:

Russia's contributions to rocketry and human spaceflight are as undeniable as they are numerous. Of Tsiolkovsky's advocacy, calculations and designs, Russia quickly established a lead in the space race, sending the first satellite, animal, man, and woman to space.

Russia would also make several advances as part of its rocketry program with the development of the R-2, R-7, Proton, N-1, Energia, and Soyuz rockets. Today, the Soyuz rocket remains the workhorse of Rocosmos and has repeatedly been used to transport astronauts from other nations to the ISS.

Russia has also been instrumental in the development of space stations and other technologies that are allowing for a sustained human presence in space. And with the resurgence of the Russian economy after 2005, Roscosmos has set its sights on some ambitious long-term goals.

In the coming decades, they hope to mount robotic missions to the Moon, which will culminate with the first Russian cosmonauts being sent to the lunar surface after 2030. Beyond that, Roscosmos has also announced plans for sending crewed missions to Mars.

They have also expressed interest in collaborating with NASA, China and the ESA on lunar ventures such as the Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway and International Moon Village.

Space Exploration Firsts:

Russia's history of space exploration includes many impressive firsts. In addition to getting to space ahead of NASA, Russia has also maintained a greater degree of proficiency in several areas. Between the Soviet space program and Roscosmos, Russia was the first to:

• Test an intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7 Semyorka, 1957)
• Launch the first satellite (Sputnik 1, 1957)
• Launch the first animal to Earth orbit (Laika on Sputnik 2, 1957)
• Launch the first man-made object to escape Earth's gravity, communicate and data to and from outer space, and pass near the moon (Luna 1, 1959)
• Impact a probe on the Moon (Luna 2, 1959)
• Take pictures of the far side of the Moon (Luna 3, 1959)
• First animals (Belka and Strelka) sent to orbit and safely returned (Sputnik 5, 1960)
• Send a probe to Venus (Venera 1, 1961)
• Send a man to space and Earth orbit (Yuri Gagarin, Vostok 1, 1961)
• Send a probe to Mars (Mars 1, 1962)
• Send a woman to space (Valentine Tereshkova, Vostok 6, 1963)
• Send a multi-person crew to orbit (Voskhod 1, 1964)
• First extra-vehicular activity (EVA) in orbit (Voskhod 2, 1965)
• Impact another planet (Venus) in the Solar System (Venera 3, 1965)
• Make a soft landing and transmit from the Moon (Luna 9, 1966)
• Send a probe to lunar orbit (Luna 10, 1966)
• Send the first living beings (tortoises) on a trans-lunar flight (Zond 5, 1968)
• Dock two crewed spacecraft in orbit and exchange crews (Soyuz 4 and 5, 1969)
• Return lunar soil samples to Earth with a robotic mission (Luna 16, 1970)
• Send data from the surface of another planet (Venus) to Earth (Venera 7, 1970)

• Launch a space station (Salyut 1, 1971)
• Impact a probe on the surface of Mars (Mars 2, 1971)
• Land a probe on Mars (Mars 3, 1971)
• Conduct a soft landing on Venus and send photos to Earth (Venera 9, 1975)
• Have a female cosmonaut (Svetlana Savitskaya) conduct a spacewalk (Salyut 7, 1984)
• Deploy robotic balloons into Venus' atmosphere (Vega 1 and Vega 2, 1986)
• Deploy a space station with a permanent crew (Mir, 1986)
• Send a crew to space for over one year (1987)
• Establish the record for longest time spent in space – Valeri Polyakov, 437.7 days (1995)
• Launch the first space tourist (Denis Tito, 2001)

Taken together, the efforts of these five space agencies add up to a very interesting future for humanity in space. When the days come that permanent human outposts exist on the Moon, Mars, and maybe even on the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and beyond, it's not farfetched to think that they will bear the standards of many nations and agencies.

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